Using advanced techniques (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-Ray analysis, Liquid chromatography / Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry), the authors reported the release of micro and nano polymeric fibres (as also observed by Saliu et al., 2021; just characterized by size by SEM, not counted), siliceous fragments, and other irregularly-shaped plastic particles; but also leachable inorganic and organic substances, such as metals (up to 6.79 g lead/L; 1.92 g cadmium/L, 393 g antimony/L, 4.17 g copper/L) and polar organic species related to plastic additives, surfactant molecules, dye-like molecules, polyamide-66 monomer and oligomers (nylon-66 synthesis), and polyethylene glycol (Sullivan et al., 2021). Re-usable masks may still be one of the solutions to address the current shortage. Sullivan G.L., Delgado-Gallardo J., Watson T.M., Sarp S. An investigation into the leaching of micro and nano particles and chemical pollutants from disposable face masks - linked to the COVID-19 pandemic. A multi-pronged approach is needed to mitigate risks. Neto H.G., Bantel C.G., Browning J., Fina Della N., Ballabio T.A., de Santana F.T., de Karam e Britto M., Barbosa C.B. COVID-19 has elevated our dependency on plastic products, such as face masks, to ensure safety against infection. Plastic pollution is one of the greatest environmental challenges, with known adverse ecological, economic and human health effects (De-la-Torre et al., 2021). There are no official statistics sufficiently disaggregated to provide information on the output of masks. Okuku E., Kiteresi L., Owato G., Otieno K., Mwalugha C., Mbuche M., Gwada B., Nelson A., Chepkemboi P., Achieng Q., Wanjeri V., Ndwiga J., Mulupi L., Omire J. Rebelein A., Int-Veen I., Kammann U., Scharsack J.R.P. Khn S., Bravo Rebolledo E.L., van Franeker J.A. New masks are being certified, but the assessment of their environmental performance is still lacking. 0 Respirators have a similar production process, with two differences. This poses an extra cost, but one offset by higher prices for the masks. The prevalence and source of plastic incorporated into nests of five seabird species on a small offshore island. Moreover, it is vital to scale up innovation and technology to substitute current disposable masks (petrochemical-based) with bio-based and eco-friendly (potentially biodegradable) alternatives. Simple masks have ties in the same material as the rest of the fabric, while more elaborate masks have elastic ear loops (made, for example, from nylon spandex), which need to be separately manufactured and attached to the filtering layers. Post COVID-19 pandemic_ biofragmentation and soil ecotoxicological effects of microplastics derived from face masks. In China, there was no regulation prohibiting exports but a form of compulsory purchase, with all orders in January and February going to the government and exports resuming in March. Chinese Taipei was the first economy to ban exports of masks on 24January 2020; many others have subsequently introduced export bans (Table1). Incorrect disposal of disposable face masks has been reported worldwide, in urbanised areas (streets, gardens, parks), natural reserves, beaches, and even high mountains (e.g., Ammendolia et al., 2021; Neto et al., 2021; Prata et al., 2020); intensifying plastic pollution. Akhbarizadeh R., Dobaradaran S., Nabipour I., Tangestani M., Abedi D., Javanfekr F., Jeddi F., Zendehboodi A. Certification procedures should be expedited to allow masks produced by new companies to be traded as soon as possible. Beaches (sediments and water), and streets. Recent publications reported the abundance of COVID-19-related litter in several environments, wildlife interaction with such items, and the contaminants that can be released from such protective equipment that has the potential to induce ecotoxicological effects. First, in terms of the international supply chain, several countries have put in place export restrictions or equivalent measures (discussed further below), or introduced new authorisation or certification procedures, which can cause delays in exports. Microplastic fibres are already a reality in some environments, with high dominance over other shapes in aquatic environments and in concerning levels (as reviewed by Rebelein et al., 2021). This paper provides an overview of the presence and abundance of COVID-19 mask in urbanised and natural environments, their direct adverse effects on wildlife, and discusses the potential ecotoxicological effects imposed by the released particles and leached hazardous chemicals recently reported for such items. Horn D.A., Granek E.F., Steele C.L. The same phenomenon has been observed with respirators, with the price of a box of 20 increasing from USD17 to USD70. These companies need to be prepared with the relevant capital investments and access to inputs (some of which will have to be imported). More attention should also be given to the supply of key inputs. Microplastic fiber up- take, ingestion, and egestion rates in the blue mussel (. Masks are then sterilised before going to testing and packaging. The presence of plastic waste in the nest's structure could also alter thermal and drainage properties, influencing reproductive success (Thompson et al., 2020). An open trade environment is key for the diffusion of such technologies. Disposable masks are essentially made of polypropylene and high density of polyethylene, and might contain other polymeric materials such as polyesters, polyurethane, polystyrene, and polyacrylonitrile (Prata et al., 2021). Thus, despite later regurgitation, frequent ingestion of plastic wastes in landfills by overwintering seagulls has been associated with death and a significant decrease in their reproduction due to chemical body-burdens (Seif et al., 2018). No effects on survival and bacterial infection (for polyester). Besides entanglement, the availability of face masks may have unexpected effects. Responses of, Banaee M., Soltanian S., Sureda A., Gholamhosseini A., Haghi B.N., Akhlaghi M., Derikvandy A. In addition, the shortage of masks in some countries has led to thefts and the hijacking of some shipments. Materials to manufacture masks are usually transported by sea, but several manufacturers report having switched to air transport to ensure that deliveries are on time. The regular use of masks in the population (as a protection against pollution or during the flu season) can also make production economically sustainable (and is one reason production capacity was higher in East Asia than in the rest of the world at the beginning of the COVID-19 crisis). This paper provides a critical review of COVID-19 face mask occurrence in diverse environments and their adverse physiological and ecotoxicological effects on wildlife. Nam S.-H., Seo Y.-M., Kim M.-G. Bisphenol A migration from polycarbonate baby bottle with repeated use. Species include seagulls (Larus sp. Gut microbiota dysbiosis. For instance, a disposable face mask and other personal protective equipment were observed in the nest of a common coot (Fulica atra) in Leiden, Netherlands (Hiemstra et al., 2021). pp. will also be available for a limited time. International trade and investment along the global value chain for face masks is an essential part of the policy response to the COVID-19 crisis in the short term. Polypropylene (PP) is one of the most commonly produced plastics in the world and, as a polymer derived from oil, can be easily supplied (although dependent on oil prices and access to oil). In France, Austria, Germany, and some U.S. states, the use of disposable masks in public places were even imposed by national or local governments (Prata et al., 2021; CDC, 2021). COVID-19 related litter adds to the pressures already caused by common plastic items, such as single-use plastics (e.g., plastic bags). Export restrictions have three consequences. Saliu F., Veronelli M., Raguso C., Barana D., Galli P., Lasagni M. The release process of microfibers: from surgical face masks into the marine environment. The use of disposable face masks became essential to fight against the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in an unprecedented rise in their production and, unfortunately, to a new form of environmental contamination due to improper disposal. The presence of marine debris, including plastics, also increases turtle hatchlings times to reach the sea, favouring predation (Aguilera et al., 2018). It is estimated that approximately 0.15 million tons to 0.39 million tons of mismanaged COVID-19 plastic waste could end up in global oceans within a year (Chowdhury et al., 2021). A considerable percentage of Magellanic penguins (~36%) in Brazil, actually display evidence of being negatively affected by the ingestion of solid (plastic) waste, with acute (death) and chronic (reproductive failure, delayed ovulation) effects (Brando et al., 2011). T.R.-S.: conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. Impact of microplastic beads and fibers on waterflea (, Elsevier Public Health Emergency Collection, https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7007e1.htm?s_cid=mm7007e1_w, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/78223555.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst, https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/masks-globes-wipes-creating-garbage-1.5600870, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1103510/south-korea-types-face-mask-used-due-to-coronavirus/, https://oceansasia.org/beach-mask-coronavirus/, https://www.wwf.it/chi_siamo/organizzazione/. Items densities seem dependent on sampling areas, weather conditions (wind, precipitation), and populational density. Meeting demand for face masks has become one of the main issues for governments fighting the pandemic. Microplastics and copper effects on the neotropical teleost. Some countries have created new production capacity and supply is expected to continue to increase as governments encourage firms to shift production and companies see new business opportunities. Export bans are harmful for countries without production capacity, but can also backfire on the country imposing them when they need to import inputs, additional masks or other essential goods. Viruses are very small and require specific fabric for effective filtering. COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on the use and management of plastics. D.B. No Shortage of Masks at the Beach - OCEANS ASIA [WWW Document]. Organisms' entanglement can result in immediate death through immobilisation (as observed in the American robin T. migratorius), or by suffocation or drowning. The term face mask generally refers to surgical masks (also known as procedure masks or medical masks). A.C.D. Chemicals adsorbed to microplastics may leach into body tissues after ingestion/contact, resulting in induced changes or bioaccumulation (Issac and Kandasubramanian, 2021). Before COVID-19, several strategies and policies were in place to reduce our dependency on plastics. PET (< 5 mm) obtained from pink PET fleece, Adult mortality and adverse embryonic development, Nylon and PET (10 4 m; 23 100 m; 17 60 m; 23 70 m) purchased from Goodfellow, Compromised feeding activity, alteration in sinking rates, Nylon, polyester and PP (501000 30 um) obtained from fluorescent ropes. : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. As masks are now recommended for a broader use by the general population and an increasing number of countries require citizens to wear them in public places, the estimates provided above for China are likely to be applicable to other countries, leading to a demand for masks possibly ten times higher than before the crisis in countries affected by the virus. Reduction in food intake and excretion, damage in the gastrointestinal walls, oxidative stress. Roda J.F.B., Lauer M.M., Risso W.E., dos Reis Martinez C.B. Jin I.K., Youn-Joo A. Before the crisis, a box of 100 masks could be bought for less than USD4 in the United States. Disposable face masks also contain these additives to enhance their properties, such as antiviral and antibacterial barriers, dye compounds, fragrances. Chowdhury H., Chowdhury T., Sait S.M. Robust supply chains require transparency, agility and reactivity. (2021) recently reported the death of an adult Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) found on Juquehy Beach, So Sebastio, Brazil, potentially related to the ingestion of an FFP-2 protective face mask. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. OECD, Beyond Containment: Health Systems Responses to COVID-19 in the OECD, updated 16 April 2020. https://www.who.int/publications-detail/advice-on-the-use-of-masks-in-the-community-during-home-care-and-in-healthcare-settings-in-the-context-of-the-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov)-outbreak. This, essentially domestic, downstream part of the value chain can be as disrupted as the more international part upstream. Adding in care givers and suspected COVID-19 patients further increases this demand, possibly by another 12million per day.17. Second, domestic transport and logistics infrastructure, and domestic distribution, have also been disrupted by COVID-19. Face masks in the new COVID-19 normal: materials, testing, and perspectives. Jemec A., Horvat P., Kunej U., Bele M., Kran A. Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean. Impact of microplastic fibers from the degradation of nonwoven synthetic textiles to the Magdalena River water column and river sediments by the city of Neiva, Huila (Colombia). Most of the potential new manufacturers are currently held back by the shortage in PP non-woven fabric.10. Critical Component of Protective Masks in Short Supply, Wall Street Journal, 7 March 2020. It is a cost-efficient strategy, as through global production and trade, costs can remain low and masks do not need to be bought in the middle of the crisis when prices soar. Saliu et al. Although the percentage of COVID-19 face mask litter seems to be considerably lower than single-use plastics (e.g., packaging), their constitution (e.g., layers of polymeric material; ear-hook) and composition (additives and plasticisers) raises equal environmental concerns if their use and consumption patterns remain considerably high for the coming years (as in 20202021). Besides, thousands of disposable masks are ending up on landfills or open dumps along with mixed wastes daily (as it is occurring in developing countries such as India and Indonesia; Corburn et al., 2020; Gandhiok, 2021; Sabour et al., 2020), and if not properly contained and due to their lightweight, such items can easily leak to the environment. It is widely recognised that plastic pollution can directly affect wildlife (e.g., via ingestion and entanglement), regardless of their habitat, physiology, behavioural patterns. Some manufacturers buy the non-woven fabric and just weld the layers (in particular, those manufacturers who switched to mask production during the crisis). But even this was insufficient to meet its own demand related to COVID-19, and China imported a large quantity of masks.11 In January 2020, China could produce 20million masks per day12, which was insufficient to meet a total demand estimated at 240 million masks per day to equip health, manufacturing and transport workers.13 As a result of extensive efforts by the government and companies, Chinese production increased six-fold and reached 116million masks per day at the end of February and possibly 200million per day at the end of March (a ten-fold increase). Hiemstra A.-F., Rambonnet L., Gravendeel B., Schilthuizen M. The effects of COVID-19 litter on animal life. Microplastic fibers an underestimated threat to aquatic organisms? Estimates provided by Hua Chang Securities. The export authorisation was first for all personal protective equipment and narrowed down to protective masks on 14April 2020 (https://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/press/index.cfm?id=2132). Disposable face masks also contain additives to enhance some fashionable properties, such as antiviral and antibacterial barriers, dye compounds, fragrances. Liu P., Shi Y., Wu X., Wang H., Huang H., Guo X., Gao S. Review of the artificially-accelerated aging technology and ecological risk of microplastics. Several countries are now implementing measures to curb prices and protect consumers. 2020. one thousandth of the diameter of a human hair). Source: OECD, based on information provided by manufacturers. The government can co-ordinate such efforts and provide subsidies or financial incentives for private companies to participate in a contingency programme. This is not surprising, as, in an international online survey (Australia, U.S., U.K., Singapore, Sri Lanka and India), 19% of individuals assumed that they recklessly throw away their disposable face masks (Selvaranjan et al., 2021).

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